A manual of arms was an instruction book for handling and using weapons in formation, whether in the field or on parade. Such manuals were especially important in the matchlock and flintlock eras, when loading and firing was a complex and lengthy process typically carried out in close order. When capitalized, the term has reference to one of several important manuals, such as the British Army manual of 1764, the manual of Frederick the Great or Von Steuben's Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States, adopted by the Continental Army in 1777. The positions and evolutions contained in such manuals have become the standard for parade drill throughout most of the world.

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2. British Army Skill At Arms Manual 2020
3. British Army Skill At Arms Manual

The British Army must be able to conduct drill, act under pressure, and show a high level of professionalism at all times. About Face - Soldiers will do an about turn by turing around over the right shoulder. Right/Left Incline - Soldiers will do a half turn to either the right or left. Dress right, dress - Soldiers will be 1 stud. The DTTT v2 course is also mandatory for Army Skills Instructors at Phase 2 and 3 training establishments. 4.1 The Platoon Sergeants’ Battle Course. The Platoon Sergeants’ Battle Course (PSBC) is delivered by the Infantry Battle School located in Brecon, mid-Wales, and forms part of the School of Infantry (British Army, 2015a).

Typical examples of rules and procedures can be found in the 1764 manual.^[1] It was used by both sides at the start of the American Revolution.

• Stance: stand straight, head right, shoulders square, stomach in, chest out, heels close, toes turned out a little.
• Holding the weapon: on the left shoulder, forefinger and thumb to the side of the stock, the other three holding the butt.
• Timing: each motion to be done on a count of 'one, two'.

Such manuals contain various evolutions, such as the twelve or so steps needed to load, ready and fire, and steps for fixing bayonets, forming line (for firing), column (for bayonet charges) or square (for repelling cavalry).

A second example is the manual used for training of Union troops in 1861.^[2] While not always dictating the stance (as reference is made to loading from horseback), specific instructions were given for drawing on command (specifically the rifle and pistol), loading, firing, cease-firing, inspecting and returning the weapons to their carrying position (slinging the carbine, or holstering the revolver).

Notes[edit]

1. ^British Army manual of 1764, illustrated by Outwater's MilitiaArchived 2010-01-14 at the Wayback Machine
2. ^Worthington, T., Gen. 'MANUAL OF ARMS FOR THE SHARPS RIFLE, COLT REVOLVER AND SWORDS (1861)'. Applegate & Co. No. 43 Main Street. 1861. Retrieved 25 November 2012.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Most Civil War infantryreenactors use Hardee's Rifle and Light Infantry Tacticsfor drilling in the Schools of the Soldier and Company, and with goodreasons. Period sources abound with mention of Hardee's 'Tactics,' andwe have had several different reprints of this work available for usesince the 1970s. (See note 1)

But are we correct in using Hardee's work, and if so, are we using theright version of Hardee's infantry drill? This series of articles willexamine those questions in detail, from both the Confederate andFederal viewpoints. Chapter I will detail some changes Hardee made forConfederate editions of his manual, and Chapter II will present a broadlook at Federal infantry drill manuals (not just Hardee's). Inconclusion we will make some recommendations for changing the manual ofarms used by reenactors.

Hardee and his 'Tactics'

The early 1850s were a time for change in military circles around theworld. Weapons technology had advanced by leaps and bounds; where theMexican War had been fought mostly with flintlock smoothbore muskets,the Crimean War, and by the Model 1841 'Mississippi' rifle in theMexican War, let the United States to adopt a 33-inch barrel rifle in1855 (a 40-inch barrel rifle-musket was adopted concurrently).

To go along with this new rifle, Secretary of War Jefferson Daviswanted a revised system of infantry tactics. The current system hadbeen written by Winfield Scott in the 1830s, based on French tacticsdating ultimately from the 18th century, and had survived virtuallyun-changed. Scott's tactics emphasized masses of men concentrated onthe march and on the battlefield, to reap the greatest benefit fromtheir relatively inaccurate firepower. By the 1850s, these movementswere slow and outdated. The manual of arms was particularly cumbersome:it took 12 separate steps to load the flintlock musket, which wasnormally carried in an awkward position, held by the butt, nearlyvertical at the left side. (See note 2) A soldier wishing to move atany pace faster than common time (90 paces per minute) had a difficulttime controlling his musket at this 'Shouldered Arms' position. Partlybecause of this, common time was the norm in Scott's drill. However,masses of troops moving at common time found themselves at a severedisadvantage under rifle fire. Revisions were necessary to bring U.S.infantry tactics in line with the long-range capabilities of the rifle.

Davis knew of the extensive studies being conducted in Europe in bothweapon and tactics, and he appointed a number of officer committees toobserve these and recommend changes to the U.S. systems. To revise U.S.infantry tactics, Davis chose Bvt. Lt. Col. William Joseph Hardee,Second Dragoons. Davis chose well: Hardee had studied at Saumur, theFrench cavalry school (and the home of the modern French armoredforces) in 1841, where he learned the value of skirmishers, rapidity ofmovement, and hit-and-run tactics by light forces gained from theFrench experiences in Algeria in the 1830s. To this, he added personalexperience in such warfare on the Texas frontier in 1849-1851. He waswidely read in tactics, and he was familiar with the possibilities ofthe shorter and longer range M1855 rifle. Finally, he had gained anexcellent reputation during the Mexican War. (See note 3)

Hardee drew extensively on his knowledge of the French military toaccomplish his task. He knew Davis wanted to thoroughly modernize theU.S. infantry into a faster, lighter force, capable of taking advantageof the new rifle. His task was made simpler by the 1845 publication ofa French manual that did just that for the French infantry. (See note4) Hardee's manual was finished in 1854; it was tested, approved, thenpublished in June 1855.

This then, was Hardee's 'Tactics:' a modernization of American infantrydrill at the company and battalion level, aimed at incorporatingseveral important features of light infantry tactics into the normalfield functioning of infantry. The most important tacticalimprovements, which took into account the long-range capabilities ofthe rifle, were an increased tempo where quick time (110 steps perminute) was the norm, and double quick time (165 steps per minute) wascommon, along with simplified instructions to deploy a column into lineat the double quick, without first halting. To be sure, many of theseinnovations could be found in other manuals of the 1850s, but Hardee'sbecame the official manual for the U.S. Army. (See note 5)

Davis, Hardee, and others in official Army circles seemed to assume theM1855 rifle would become the dominant arm in the U.S. Service, and themanual of arms in Hardee's 'Tactics' was naturally written for the2-band rifle with sword bayonet. However, the rifle never was issued inthe numbers envisioned. The militia, and indeed most of the army, wereleft with 42-inch barrel muskets or 40-inch barrel rifle-muskets, bothhaving socket bayonets. Not only did Hardee's 'Tactics' producedifficulty for militia units trying to learn the new evolutions, hismanual of arms proved awkward, and even sometimes impractical for thelonger muskets (e.g., in fixing bayonets and stacking arms). Thismanual of arms was essentially the same as the old Sergeants' Manual inScott's, but without Scott's primary manual for 3-banders.

Although Hardee himself recommended that militia units not try to adopthis manual right away, evidence indicates that a number of progressivemilitia officers did just that in the late 1850s and early 1860s. As adevelopment from this, and 'improved' manual of arms, based on Hardee's'Tactics,' but suited to the 3-bander musket and rifle-musket, began toemerge. (See note 6) And, coincidentally, so did the War Between theStates.

Confederate Versions Of Hardee's 'Tactics'

Hardee's manual was a natural for the infant Confederate forces.Although many Southern officers and men were militia veterans, anddoubtless were quite familiar with Scott's older style drill, manyothers were just as familiar with Hardee's. Hardee was known throughoutthe army, and he was, after all, a Confederate officer. (See note 7)Quite a number of drill manuals were published in the new Confederacy,some using older militia style musket drill, but Hardee's 'Tactics'quickly became the manual of choice. Editions were printed in Richmond,Nashville, New Orleans, Mobile, Memphis, Raleigh, Charleston, Jackson,Little Rock, and Houston. When most soldiers spoke of drill learned intheir camp of instruction, Hardee's name eventually came out. (See note8)

This profusion of Hardee's 'Tactics' produced two problems for Hardee:he received no royalties from these 'bootleg' editions; and most ofthese were simple reprints or abridgements of the 1855 version, and didnot contain his own 'improvements and changes ... recently made,adapting the manual to the use of the arms generally in the hands ofthe troops of the Confederate States.' (See note 9) The first of theseproblems was never satisfactorily solved. Hardee and his Mobilepublisher were thwarted in their attempts to secure a copyright until1864, by which time the rush to put out 'bootleg' editions was over.The second problem, however, provides the subject matter for the cordof this discussion: Hardee's 'improvements and changes' to his manualof arms.

Immediately after resigning from the U.S. Army, Hardee went to work forthe Georgia state forces, forming an infantry regiment in Savannah (the'First Regiment Georgia Regulars,' commanded by Col. C.J. Williams, notto be confused with the 'First Georgia Infantry Volunteers,' commandedby A.R. Lawton and H.W. Mercer). (See note 10) After accepting acommission as a Confederate Colonel, Hardee was posted to Fort Morgan,in Mobile, Alabama.

While in Mobile in the spring of 1861, Hardee entered into partnershipwith Mobile publisher S.H. Goetzel & Co. to produce an editionofhis 'Tactics' that included a revised manual of arms for the 3-bandweapons commonly found in the Confederate army. Goetzel advertised thisedition as 'Hardee's Correct, Complete, Perfect, and Revised andImproved Infantry and Rifle Tactics,' (see figure 1). Note that theadjective 'Light' has been removed from 'Infantry,' making this manualapplicable to all infantry, no matter how armed or organized. Hardeehimself was quoted as calling this edition the 'only COMPLETE, CORRECTand REVISED EDITION' (See note 11).

Hardee meant this manual to replace his 1855 edition, for usethroughout the Confederate army by troops armed with 3-band muskets andrifle-muskets. The changes actually were slight. The same basicshoulder movements were retained, as well as the 'light infantry'concepts of skirmishers, double quick time, etc. However, those partsof his 1855 manual of arms that had been written specifically for the2-bander were adjusted to suit the 3-bander.

The main differences lie in the position of the musket during loading,fixing and unfixing the bayonet, and stacking arms. Each of thesemovements was revised to take into account the greater length of themusket and rifle-musket over the rifle, and the socket bayonet in lieuof the rifle's sword bayonet. The following paragraphs emphasize thedifferences from the standard 1855 edition (page and paragraph sourcesare keyed to Hardee's Rifle and Infantry Tactics,S.H. Goetzel & Co., Mobile, various editions, 1861-1863;emphasis has been added).

1. Loading
The command remains 'Load in Nine Times, LOAD.'
First Motion (from Shoulder Arms) - With the right hand bring themusket erect before the center of the body, the rammer to the front; atthe same time grasp the musket with the left hand half-way between therear sight and the lower band, the thumb extended along the barrel andagainst the body, the hand as high as the elbow (para. 143, page 33 -this is the same as the first motion for Present Arms).

Second Motion - Carry the musket to the left sidewith the left hand, turning it so the barrel is to the front. Set thebutt on the ground beside the left foot, andincline the musket to the right and front, so that it is restingalong the left thigh with the muzzle six inches in front of the centerof the body.At the end of this motion, the right hand grasps the musket just belowthe upper band, and the left hand is extended to grasp the musket aboutthe middle band.

Third Motion - Hold the musket with the left hand at the muzzle, andcarry the right hand to the cartridge box (para. 156, page 3.)

The remaining commands and motions are identical to those in thestandard 1855 Hardee's manual and reprints, with the exception ofmoving to the position of Prime, which is necessarily slightlydifferent due to the musket initially being positioned at the left side.

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Note 2: Major-General[Winfield] Scott, Infantry Tactics.Various editions, 1834-1861, paras. 150-155 (pp. 37-39); paras. 191-210(pp. 46-52). Even in the 1861 edition, the 12 steps for loading theflintlock remained.

Note 3: Nathaniel Cheairs Hughes, Jr. General William J.Hardee, Old Reliable. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State UniversityPress, 1965, p. 43.

Note 4: Ministre Secretaire d'Etat de la Guerre, Ordonnancedu Roi sur l'Exercise et les Manoeuvres des Battaillons de Chasseurs aPied. 3 vols., Paris, 1845.

Note 5: Hughes, Hardee, pp. 46-47. See alsodiscussion in Chapter 4 (pp. 48-58) in Grady McWhiney and PerryJamieson's Attack and Die,University, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1982. There is some doubtas to the exact nature of Hardee's own involvement in the production ofhis manual. Some have stated that he did no more than to put his nameon the cover, and that the French manual was actually translated byStephen Vincent Benet. See Donald E. Graves, 'Dry Books of Tactics:' USInfantry Manuals of the War of 1812 and After,' Part II, MilitaryCollector and Historian 38(4), Winter 1986, pp. 176, 177 (n.111).

Note 6: See, for instance:General Regulations for the Military Forces of the State ofNew York. New York, 1858.
E.E. Ellsworth, A Manual of Arms for Light Infantry, Adaptedto the Rifled Musket, ... Arranged for the U.S. Zouave Cadets.Chicago: P.T. Sherlock, 1860.
7th Regt. New York Infantry, The Manual of Arms, Adapted tothe Rifled Musket, Model 1855. NY: Chatterton &Parker, 1860.
A Manual of the Piece, Adapted to the Rifle-Musket, the Rifle,and Other Infantry Arms, Prescribed for the Kentucky State Guard.Louisville: J.W. Tompkins & Co., 1861.
Miner Knowlton, Instructions and Regulations for the Militiaand Volunteers of the United States. Philadelphia: Desilver,1861.

Note 7: Hughes, Hardee,pp. 50, 90-70. Hardee's status as a Confederate officer would naturallymake his manual more 'politically correct' than those written by OldArmy or militia officers who did not join the Southern forces.

Note 8: Library of Congress On-line Card Catalog; USAMHI On-LineLibrary Catalog System; Library of Virginia On-line Catalog; OCLCsearch; Noxon Toomey, The History of the Infantry DrillRegulations of the United States Army, St. Louis, 1917.Quotes on the use of Hardee's among Confederates can be found in:Hughes, Hardee, p. 138 (AoT, Dec. 1862);
Austin Dobbins, Grandfather's Journal. Dayton:Morningside Press, 1988, entry for June 13, 1861 (16th Miss. Inf.);
Mary Lasswell, ed., Rags and Hope. NY:Coward-McCann, 1961, p. 49 (4th Texas Inf.);Flavel C. Barber (Robert H. Ferrell, ed.), Holding the Line.Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1994, pp. 55, 175 (3rd Tenn.Inf., AoT, 1862-1864);
Digby G. Seymour, Divided Loyalties.Knoxville: East Tennessee Historical Society, 1982 (2nd Ed.), p. 227(reference to copy of Hardee's owned by Col. Moses White of the 37thTenn. Inf.).

In addition, an index search of Confederate Veteran, SouthernHistorical Society Papers, and Southern Bivouacrevealed over 16 separate entries for Hardee's Tactics, including useby the following units: 50th Tenn. Inf., 35th Miss. Inf., 1862, 5thTenn. Inf., 1863, 9th Ky. Inf., 1861, 24th or 34th N. Car. Inf., 1863,Univ. of VA Cadets, 1860-61, and a Virginia artillery unit, 1862.

Note 9: William J. Hardee, 'Memorial to the Congress of the ConfederateStates,' Mobile, December 14, 1863 (Library of Congress ManuscriptDivision, Z645.A5-1863).

Note 10: W.H. Andrews, Footprints of a Regiment.Marietta, GA: Longstreet Press, 1992, p. 12; Stewart Sifakis, Compendiumof the Confederate Armies: South Carolina and Georgia. NewYork: Facts on File, 1996, pp. 173-176.

British Army Skill At Arms Manual 2020

Note 11: Hardee, 'Memorial' (this copyright notice was also publishedin the Goetzel versions, from the 3rd Edition on). See, for example,ads in various Southern newspapers, such as that in TheSouthern Illustrated News,Vol. 1, No. 30 (April 4, 1863), p. 8 (commonly available as a reprint).It must be noted that although the text was revised, the correspondingplates did not receive as much attention. The weapon is still shown asa 2-band rifle, with a socket bayonet substituted for the swordbayonet, and the positions of the piece were not changed significantlyfrom the 1855 plates.

British Army Skill At Arms Manual